PART 2

THRONE OF GOD

EDEN

NOVEMBER 11, 2026 | BY KEVIN MCFARLAND

OCTOBER 2026 | BY KEVIN MCFARLAND

It may come as a surprise, but the search for Noah's Ark requires us to look even further back in time: straight to Eden and the garden where God created humanity to dwell with Him. While this might initially seem unrelated to the Ark, it is anything but. Both are deeply intertwined, from the creation to the re-creation, Adam to the new Adam, mountain to mountain. It is my conviction that Eden and the landing place of the Ark are anchored to the very same location. This isn't just my own opinion, but one backed up in Scripture, thousands of years of theological analysis, and rooted in the cosmic geography of the Bible. Quite simply, it reflects the way God works. If you pin down the geographic reality of Eden, the puzzle pieces of the Flood narrative fall into place. And the reverse holds just as true. By the end of this section, I hope you will see why.

In Part 1, we established a compelling case for Mount Aragats as the landing place of the Ark. That foundation was built entirely on what the Genesis says, what the geology confirms, and what early historical witnesses recorded. Archaeologically, what sits preserved on Aragats and its southern slopes is absolutely astonishing, but before we unearth those physical remains, we have to lay the framework for Eden.

Aragats matches the Flood account, but does it match the geography of Eden?

Far more than I ever anticipated.

SECTION 2.1

THE TOPOGRAPHY OF EDEN

BIBLICAL CRITERIA FOR EDEN

Scripture remains the absolute foundation of this investigation, and it is within the biblical text that we find the exact topographical blueprint for Eden.

Genesis 2:8 provides the first mention of this sacred space: “Now the Lord God had planted a garden in the east, in Eden; and there he put the man he had formed.” Shortly after, Moses, the writer of Genesis, provides the geographic details:

"A river flowed out of Eden to water the garden, and there it divided and became four rivers. The name of the first is the Pishon. It is the one that flowed around the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold. And the gold of that land is good; bdellium and onyx stone are there. The name of the second river is the Gihon. It is the one that flowed around the whole land of Cush. And the name of the third river is the Tigris, which flows east of Assyria.[d] And the fourth river is the Euphrates." (Genesis 2:10-14)

Many have suggested to me that searching for Eden is a futile endeavor; that the flood obliterated it, or that God intentionally hid it from human eyes. I simply point back to these verses. Genesis 2 is not a spiritual allegory; it is a map. It pinpoints Eden to a tangible region on Earth. While the early chapters of Genesis are famously void of many specifics, the geographic location of Eden is surprisingly not one of them. Furthermore, Moses writing thousands of years after the flood, is not implying that these river systems were lost, but that they were recognizable, living geography to the world around him.

The great theologian Augustin said “Our first parents were certainly on earth, in a well-wooded and fruitful spot, which has been named Paradise.” and that "we believe the strict truth of the history, confirmed by its circumstantial narrative of facts.” [1] John Calvin agreed, saying "I assert, it was the same earth which had been created in the beginning. Add to this, that Moses (in my judgment) accommodated his topography to the capacity of his age." [2]

The Biblical blueprint does not stop with a river system, and this is where most searches for Eden have gone fundamentally wrong. People inherently look for a flat, lush, tropical forest. But the Bible says it is a mountain. In Ezekiel 28, the prophet records God's words to the King of Tyre, directly comparing him to Adam in the original sanctuary:

13 You were in Eden, the garden of God;
every precious stone was your covering,
sardius, topaz, and diamond, beryl, onyx, and jasper,
sapphire, emerald, and carbuncle; and crafted in gold

were your settings and your engravings.
On the day that you were created they were prepared.

14 You were an anointed guardian cherub.
I placed you; you were on the holy mountain of God;
in the midst of the stones of fire you walked.

16 so I cast you as a profane thing from the mountain of God.

EZEKIEL 28:13-14, 16

Ezekiel records the words of the Lord with absolute clarity: Eden is a mountain.

There is one final, beautiful reference that completes Eden. The entire narrative of the Bible, from Creation to God's ultimate rescue plan through Jesus, ends with a New Eden in the very last chapter of the New Testament:

"Then the angel showed me the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal,

flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb down the middle of the

great street of the city. On each side of the river stood the tree of life,

bearing twelve crops of fruit, yielding its fruit every month.

And the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations."

REVELATION 22:1-2

Eden is restored, and heaven finally comes down to Earth. But look closely at the symbolism: the river of life flows directly from the Throne of God. In biblical and ancient Near Eastern theology, the Throne of God always resides at the absolute summit of the holy mountain.

So let's break these down..

Jan_Brueghel_de_Oude_en_Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Het_aards_paradijs_met_de_zondeval_van_Adam_en

The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man

painting by Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder (1615)

"Expulsion of the Garden of Eden"

by Thomas Cole, 1828

Satellite imagery of the four peaks of Aragats and the four directions, arranged as a Throne shape.

EDEN AS A MOUNTAIN

As Ezekiel records and Revelation looks forward to, scripture calls Eden the "Mountain of the Lord." Throughout the Bible, mountains are the places where God meets man, the intersection of heaven meets earth, such as Mount Sinai, Mount Moriah and Mount Zion. Eden is first of them.

Ancient extra-biblical literature preserves the exact same geography. The First Book of Enoch, quoted directly in Jude and echoed throughout Peter's epistles, describes Eden as a magnificent mountain which "reached to heaven like the throne of God, of alabaster, and the summit of the throne was of sapphire." Returning to this vision in chapter 24, Enoch observes that the central peak "excelled them in height, resembling the seat of a throne: and fragrant trees encircled the throne" with the angel Michael revealing that the Tree of Life sits at its center awaiting the elect [3].

The Book of Jubilees, one of the most widely represented texts among the Dead Sea Scrolls, reinforces Eden as a mountain. In Jubilees 8:19, the holy mountains are described: "the Garden of Eden is the holy of holies, and the dwelling of the Lord, and Mount Sinai the centre of the desert, and Mount Zion the centre of the navel of the earth: these three were created as holy places facing each other." [4]

Jubilees preserves even further detail of its elevation. In chapter 4:24, the text records: "And on account of him [Enoch] the waters of the flood did not come upon all the land of Eden; for there he was set as a sign and so that he should testify against all the human beings." [4] The ancient text implies that Eden’s elevation and holiness were set apart even amid the flood. Remember this as we will revisit in our final conclusion in Part 5.

Genesis 2 implies it is a mountain purely based on the hydrology. As a professional geologist and cartographer, it is clear to me that Moses is describing a mountain environment where a single river "flowed from Eden" before it "divided and became four rivers." Because water strictly obeys gravity, a single source separating into four distinct headwaters must originate on a mountain. Numerous theologians have expounded on this. In his fourth-century Hymns on Paradise, St. Ephrem the Syrian wrote: "I gazed upon Paradise; the summit of every mountain is lower than its summit." [5] Today, leading biblical scholars like G.K. Beale state it just as plainly: "The garden of Eden was a garden on a mountain." [6]

So it is puzzling, and geographically impossible, to consider all the modern theories placing Eden in the flat marshlands of southern Iraq or beneath the Persian Gulf. To make this work, you have to change the meaning of the text "flow out from" and ignore Ezekiel completely. And this is modern theory, as ancient historians and theologians almost universally pointed north to the Armenian Highlands as Eden.

ARAGATS AS A MOUNTAIN AND A THRONE

Let's first see if Aragats meets this biblical blueprint. It is a towering, solitary mountain, and the tallest in Armenia today. As established geologically in Part 1, Aragats was once the highest volcanic peak across the entire Armenian Highlands, with its ancient, pre-erupted height approaching some of the highest on Earth. [7]

The Edenic imagry is also found in the mountain’s very name. Traditional Armenian etymology translates Aragats as the "Throne of Ara." [8] The title draws from two ancient linguistic roots: Ara (Արա), the ancient Armenian personification of the creator and divine light, and gah (գահ), meaning "throne" or "seat." The root Ar signifies life, the sun, and the celestial source of being. This has persisted in the highlands for millennia, evidenced by the name of Armenia itself, interpreted to mean "land of the children of light."

But Aragats doesn't just mean throne; it takes the physical shape of one.

Four distinct peaks rim its extinct caldera, pointing almost squarely to the four directions: north, east, south, and west. Between them sits the massive bowl of the crater, flanked to the east by a deep gorge that slices straight into the interior of the mountain. Standing on one of the summits and looking down into that vast amphitheater, the impression is unmistakable: it looks like a colossal seat. Remember Enoch's vision. When he was carried up and looked down on Eden, he described a mountain that "excelled them in height, resembling the seat of a throne." [3] Notice the choice of word: resembling. He was describing a physical mountain shaped like an actual throne. To my knowledge as a geologist, no other mountain in the ancient Near East shares this precise, four-peaked, caldera-crowned structure.

It looks like a throne, carries the ancient name of a throne, and sits right at the center of the Biblical mountains of Ararat - all on a mountain that paleogeology suggests was the tallest in the region, by far. This is only the beginning...

Zion, standing at 2,900 meters (9,500 feet) is still dwarfed by the four peaks of Aragats, the "Throne of Ara."

A FEW NOTES BEFORE WE CONTINUE...

From the Biblical description of Eden, there are five details that are worth pausing to consider. None of these prove Aragats is Eden, yet it is a mountain that naturally fits each of these descriptions.

1. STONES OF FIRE

I placed you; you were on the holy mountain of God; in the midst of the stones of fire you walked. Ezekiel 28:14

Immediately after calling Eden a mountain, Ezekiel describes walking amidst "stones of fire." As a geologist, the very first thing that comes to mind is a volcanic environment, a landscape where literally every rock is forged by fire. I am sure this imagery carries a deep symbolic meaning, likely reflecting the radiant, glorious presence of God. Yet, as is true throughout nearly all of Scripture, these descriptions rarely stop at mere symbolism; they often carry a dual, physical reality. I find it remarkable that Mount Aragats, being a massive shield volcano, fits this literal description so naturally.

2. THE MIST

"and a mist was going up from the land and was watering the whole face of the ground." Genesis 2:6

The second chapter of Genesis gives us a glimpse into how the garden was watered before rain ever fell on the earth. For us, this sounded like an abstract, poetic concept until we actually experienced it. In the middle of August, my family camped high up on Aragats beside a stunning alpine lake at nearly 11,000 feet in elevation. We sat by the water watching shepherds and hundreds of sheep spread across the green meadows. Periodically, a thick blanket of mist would roll silently up the slopes, completely soaking our blankets and tents. At first, it was a bit irritating until it hit me what we were actually witnessing. The mist was rising from the ground to water the mountain, just as Genesis describes. Honestly, I can't picture Eden's irrigation any other way now.

3. FRUIT FOR EVERY MONTH

"On each side of the river stood the tree of life, bearing twelve crops of fruit, yielding its fruit every month." Revelation 22:2

Revelation closes with a restored picture of Eden: a life-giving river flanked by trees producing an endless, year-round harvest. I have heard people argue that Armenia couldn't possibly be Eden because they simply cannot picture a lush garden thriving there. Well, they clearly haven't visited Armenia. Aside from the historical fact that this region was the literal birthplace of horticulture and viticulture, nearly every home along the lower slopes of Aragats has its own orchard.

At our own home here in Byurakan, our garden holds over thirty distinct varieties of fruit, all growing effortlessly. Nearly every single month of the year, save for the dead of winter from January through March, we aren't just collecting one fruit, we are harvesting several at a time. The abundance almost doesn't make sense. In fact, it was standing in this very orchard that sparked my entire investigation into Aragats in the first place, all starting from a simple joke: "I think we are standing in the Garden of Eden."

4. THE OLIVE TREE

"When the dove returned to him in the evening, there in its beak was a freshly plucked olive leaf!" Genesis 8:11

I once came across a detailed report arguing why Mount Ararat could not be the landing place of the Ark, and among several points, the author claimed that olive trees do not grow naturally in Armenia. [55] While I agreed with almost everything else in his report, I couldn't agree with this one. It is true that the typical Mediterranean olive (Olea europaea) does not grow in the mountains of Armenia. However, growing wild on an uncultivated piece of land quite near my home, I came across a tree that looked unmistakably like an olive tree. I later identified it as the wild olive, or oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia). In fact, this species is native to none other than Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan. Archaeologically, "Elaeagnus augustifolia has been reported at Neolithic Aknashen in the Ararat Valley." [56] Aknashen is one of the oldest sites found in Armenia, dating back to 8,000 years ago.

5. EDEN AS A TEMPLE

Eden is laid out just like the biblical Tabernacle and Temple. Actually, it is the other way around: God designed the Temple to mirror Eden.

Look at the three-tiered progression of sacred space:

The Holy of Holies (God's inner throne room) mirrors the summit.
The Holy Place (where the priests walked with God) mirrors the garden.
The Outer Courtyard (where sacrifices were brought to the altar) mirrors the slopes just outside the garden, where Cain and Abel brought their offerings
Then there is the land surrounding the mountain, where the encampments and wilderness lay

The details match up remarkably well. Just as God placed cherubim to guard the entrance of the garden (Genesis 3:24), He later instructed that cherubim be woven into the heavy curtain guarding the Holy of Holies (Exodus 26:31). Inside the Temple, the golden lampstand was even shaped like a branching almond tree to remind Israel of the Tree of Life (Exodus 25:31–36), and Adam’s job to "work and keep" the garden (Genesis 2:15) uses the exact same words Scripture later uses for the priests serving in the Temple (Numbers 3:7–8).

The biblical parallels between Eden and the Temple are unmistakable. Just as God stationed living cherubim to guard the eastern entrance of the garden (Genesis 3:24), He later commanded that images of cherubim be woven directly into the veil separating the Holy of Holies, as well as carved onto the Temple walls and doors, all facing east (Exodus 26:31; 1 Kings 6:29). Even the golden lampstand (the Menorah) inside the Holy Place was crafted with branches, buds, and almond blossoms to resemble a stylized Tree of Life (Exodus 25:31–36), and Adam’s original mandate in Genesis 2:15 to "work and keep" the garden uses the exact same two Hebrew verbs (avad and shamar) later used exclusively to describe the duties of the Levitical priests serving in the Temple (Numbers 3:7–8).

Now, bring that layout back to the real-world geography of the mountain. For Adam and Eve to actually live in the garden, towards the top of the mountain, it cannot be a steep, jagged peak. It has to have a massive base that rises gently into wide, livable plateaus. Mount Aragats has a base nearly five times wider than Mount Ararat, sweeping upward into vast, flat highlands and sprawling meadows. When you stand up there, you can easily see how people could live and thrive on its slopes. It really is incredible.

SECTION 2.2

THE RIVERS OF EDEN

It is time to turn to the four rivers of Eden, a geographic puzzle debated for as long as history remembers. While I am not settling it once and for all here, establishing Eden as a mountain points us in the right direction.

Thankfully, two of the four rivers are universally recognized and still bear their biblical names today: the Tigris and the Euphrates. They water the Fertile Crescent before emptying into the Persian Gulf. Their origins? High up in then Armenian highlands. In ancient Mesopotamia, the Euphrates and Tigris were not ordinary rivers, but "were regarded as two branches of the Cosmic rivers." [9]This is an integral piece to the puzzle.

The other two, the Pishon and the Gihon, have caused endless confusion because those specific names have been lost to time. Speculation has ranged from the Nile in Egypt to the Ganges in India. [10] Yet, when we recognize Eden as a mountain (the elevated source of the waters) and acknowledge that the Tigris and Euphrates share a source in the Armenian Highlands, identifying the remaining two becomes much simpler than most assume.

I could easily dedicate entire chapters to the historical and linguistic research behind this, but for the sake of our journey, I will lay it out briefly.

Above: The Tigris River flowing past Diyarbakir, a Kurdish city in southeastern Turkey.

Historical map of Colchis, with the river Phasis. Notice it's origins are in Armenia. Created by Christophorus Cellarius (1638-1707), based on works of Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy.

The River Rioni, historically Phasis, flowing through Kutaisi in Georgia.

The An aerial view of the Sakdrisi gold mine in georgia, the oldest known in the world

(Source: https://ticcih.org)

PISHON - TO SPRING ABOUT

Let's look at the Pishon, which its Hebrew name could be derived from "פוש (push) meaning to spring about or to be scattered" [11] Genesis gives us specific geographical clues about this river, noting it flows through the land of Havilah, a place rich in gold, bdellium, and onyx. Moses provides these extra details suggesting the original readers were not familiar with it as opposed to the Tigris and Euphrates. [12]

Those clues point directly to the Caucasus, just north of Armenia. This region was the gold capital of the ancient world. Southern Georgia is home to the Sakdrisi mine, the oldest gold mine in the world, with evidence of extraction dating back 5,500 years [13] Nearby, the Sokt Mine on the Armenian and Azerbaijan border, still holds the largest gold reserves of any mine in the Caucasus, [14] which archaeologists say has "been in use since antiquity... during the 2nd millennium BC." [15] It was here in ancient Colchis (modern Georgia) that Jason and the Argonauts famously searched for the Golden Fleece. [16] The ancient Greek philosopher Strabo later explained the reality behind the myth, that "the riches of the country in gold, silver, and iron, proclaim the motive of Jason's expedition." [17] where "the winter torrents are said to bring down even gold... and hence the fable of the golden fleece." [18]

In the Greek epic, Jason sailed up the River Phasis, a name that shares a linguistic root with Pishon [19]. Today, this river is known as the Rioni. It flows right through this ancient land of gold, and its headwaters trace directly back to the Armenian Highlands.

What about the onyx and bdellium? The region is historically famous for "shiny black stones" as onyx refers to. [20] Armenia is widely recognized as the birthplace of international trade due to its massive early exports of black obsidian [21] Regional geology in Georgia confirms “minerals of the agate-chalcedony group (onyx) have been mined and used for jewelry purposes since ancient times." [22] Bdellium is a bit trickier to identify, but the ancient scholars who translated the Greek Septuagint interpreted the word not as a plant resin, but as a crystal or precious stone. [23, 24]

When all the evidence is weighed, the biblical map seems to point to the River Rioni. But perhaps the most profound detail is what this river symbolized to the ancient mind. To the early Greeks, the Phasis (Rioni) was no ordinary river: it was "considered as being at the edge of the world." [25]

GIHON - TO BURST FORTH

This leads us to the fourth river, the Gihon. It's Hebrew name is associated with the word "גיח (giah) meaning to burst forth." [26] Genesis tells us that this second river "winds through the entire land of Cush." For generations, modern readers assumed "Cush" exclusively referred to Ethiopia in Africa, creating an impossible scenario where the Nile shared a common highland source with the Euphrates and Tigris. But scholars and ancient historians have long recognized an Asiatic Cush, the land of the Kassites (Kassu or Cossaei), dwelling in the mountain highlands directly east and south of Armenia toward Media and the Caspian Sea. [27, 28] The first century BC historian Strabo placed the Kassites "above" Media, aligning with the eastern outflow of the Armenian highlands [29]

When looking at the terrain, one river emerges as the clearest candidate. It rises in Armenia (on the slopes of Aragats), sweeps through the ancient lands of the Kassites, and empties into the Caspian Sea. This is the Araxes (the modern Aras or Arax).

Linguistically, the Araxes means "fast," [30] a rushing river that the Roman poet Virgil described as "angry at the bridge." [31] Its physical nature perfectly mirrors the Hebrew root of Gihon, "to burst forth" [26]. Historical records also confirm this river was once called the Gihon. In his 18th century work The History of Armenia, Armenian monk and historian Mikayel Chamchian wrote of "a city of hewn stones on a small eminence in the plain of Aragaz, close to the river then called Gihon, which he now changed to Arax." [32] Today, this river flows from Aragats, forms the border between Armenia and Turkey, then of Iran and Azerbaijan before emptying out into the Caspian Sea.

And much like the Phasis (Pishon) to the north, the ancient mind viewed this eastern river as the ultimate boundary. To them, the Araxes was the "frontier of the inhabited world." [33]

Arax-River-passing-through-the-mountains-of-Meghri-Photo-Nanar-Avedessian.jpg

The Araxes River (Source: armenianweekly.com

The map of Paradise by Augustin Calmet, reproduced by Emanuel Bowen, 1780

THE FOUR PEAKS AND RIVERS OF ARAGATS

Could these four rivers have been understood within an ancient geographical framework that connected the Armenian Highlands to the wider world? The Pishon (Phasis) and Gihon (Araxes) share a history as geographical boundaries, representing the very edges of the known earth. In Mesopotamia, the Euphrates and Tigris "were regarded as two branches of the Cosmic rivers," not just ordinary waterways. To the ancient mind, these four rivers represented the symbolic four corners of the world, encompassing the totality of creation. That much, I believe, is absolutely true. But as with all Scripture, there is a physical reality anchoring the theology. We should expect to find Eden, the mountain of God, in the very region where these river systems are born.

It must be stated clearly, however: there is no single peak on Earth today that serves as the immediate source for all four of these specific rivers. If there were, the location of Eden would have been solved millennia ago. We have to account for limited geological change post flood, such as the Ararat plateau reshaped by recent lava flows. [34] However, Aragats and its immediate surroundings have remained stable throughout recorded human history. [35] Augustin Calmet produced one of the most widely used maps of Eden, published numerous times throughout the 18th century. According to Calmet, his map "shows the original four rivers flowing out to the four cardinal points from the area around the lost single source: the Pishon northwards, the Tigris southwards, the Gihon eastwards, and the Euphrates westwards. The Flood had deprived paradise of its original beauty, but its site survived." [36] He synthesized an idea widely shared that the world was not drastically changed from the flood, but have been changed just enough that the original source has been "lost." We know these four rivers are real places, evidenced by their etymology, geography, and the highland legends surrounding them. And they all share their source in the same general area of the "mountains of Ararat." Incredibly, in Calmet's map, one of the most famous ever created, marked Paradise almost exactly on Aragats (marked as Gordien Mountains).

So let's look at Aragats, the "Throne of Ara." The mountain has four distinct peaks in the four directions, representing totality already. What I found so incredible is that this symbolism physically extends down its slopes. An analysis of satellite imagery and topographic maps reveals four massive river ravines flowing directly outward from the central crater of Aragats, each carving its way roughly toward one of the four cardinal directions. It is hard to miss once you see it. This physical reality creates a stunning parallel to the four rivers of Eden flowing outward from the holy mountain to water the earth.

But before we get too excited, the four rivers described in Genesis do not originate from Aragats today. But look at this landscape through the eyes of the ancients. Here stands a massive volcano shaped like a colossal throne, crowned with four peaks pointing to the four corners of the earth, with four main rivers flowing outward from its center. And it sits right at the geographic heart of the likeliest four rivers of Eden. (See the map above) It is possible the rivers were once sourced here, but I will not make that claim as it can't be proven.

What can be proven (and this offers a glimpse into our conclusion in Part 5) is the staggering archaeological record left behind on Aragats. Dating back as far as 8,000 years, early humanity erected massive stone monoliths here which archaeologists describe "one of the earliest examples of monumental statues in the world" situated at "one of the highest-altitude archaeological complexes in the world." Researchers note that these structures "do not have parallels in the ancient world" only concluding that a "water cult" was born on Aragats and eventually "spread from the Aragats region throughout the highlands." This is not my personal theory, but the published conclusions of secular archaeologists who have dedicated years to excavating Aragats. [37] Something profound happened on this mountain; that much is an archaeological fact.

But before we unearth the history, there is more groundwork to lay. As early humanity dispersed from Babel to inhabit the globe, they carried the memory of this iconic mountain with them, placing it at the very foundation of their newly formed cultures. As we are about to see, that is exactly what they did.

SECTION 2.3

WHERE HEAVEN TOUCHES EARTH

We’ve just established the geography of Eden as a mountain where heaven touches earth, watered by four rivers. We have also seen how this ancient blueprint aligns with Mount Aragats, the four-peaked volcanic throne that serves as the water engine for the Armenian Highlands. Eden was the original sanctuary of creation, so even after the banishment, and long after the Flood, the memory of this mountain still lingered in the human consciousness.

Following the dispersion from Babel, the people finally spread throughout the world, establishing the very first civilizations. As they settled into distant landscapes, they mapped those original geographic traits of Eden onto their mythology and applied it to local mountains in their new homes. In the Himalayas, for instance, Mount Kailash stands as a massive, four-sided pyramid that became the sacred center for Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains. Similar mountains appear in nearly all the first civilizations. These were not random inventions, but pointed back to their original home of Eden.

So let's look at each of the four first civilizations (Egypt, Sumeria, India (Indus Valley) and China) and see how their mythology share striking similarities to Eden. And in fact, to the very mountain of Aragats itself. If the Bible isn't proof enough that Eden was a mountain, the fact that the oldest civilizations on earth all trace their beginnings back to a sacred mountain should put the debate to rest.

ANCIENT EGYPT

First, let’s look at ancient Egypt. In Egyptian cosmology, creation began with a primordial mound rising up out of the chaotic waters, where the creator god Atum brought the world into being. This sacred mound was embodied by the Benben stone, a four-sided pyramid kept in the holiest sanctuary of Heliopolis. [38] It served as the architectural prototype for every pyramid and obelisk raised across the Nile valley. [39]

Centuries later, Pharaoh Thutmose III, often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders in Egyptian history, became the first pharaoh to march his armies beyond the Euphrates into the northern highlands, reaching the land of "Ermenen" in the 15th century BC. According to the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (1915):

“In his thirty-third year, Thutmoses III mentions the people of Ermenen as paying tribute when he held his court at Nineveh, and says that in their land "heaven rests upon its four pillars." [40]

This account is further confirmed in Thutmose III: A New Biography, edited by Eric H. Cline and David O'Connor. [41] It is striking enough that the name Ermenen appears 3,500 years ago, the earliest historical root of Armenia. But even more telling is how Thutmose III chose to describe the territory: as the land where "heaven rests on its four pillars." The Egyptians had long held to a cosmic framework where the sky was supported by four divine columns. Amenhotep III, for instance, inscribed on a temple: “Its pylons reach heaven like the four pillars of heaven.” [42] Egyptologists typically treat this phrase as symbolic. Yet when you stop and consider it, why would a pharaoh apply this title to a distant highland like Ermenen?

In Egypt, you have the first hill rising above the waters with four sides, paired with a ancient record describing Armenia as the exact place where heaven is anchored to earth by four pillars. This mirrors the physical landscape of Aragats in a stunning way, whose four separate peaks rise out of the central Armenian plateau like four stone pillars holding up the sky.

Three and a half thousand years ago, Thutmose III recorded the tradition of the northern highlands: this is where heaven meets earth.

An excerpt from an 1840 newspaper detailing the massive earthquake-induced eruption of Ararat.

An excerpt from an 1840 newspaper detailing the massive earthquake-induced eruption of Ararat.

The Adda Seal, depicting the god Ea with four rivers, dated to 2,300 BC

A fragment of the tablet Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, dated to around 2,000 BC.

ANCIENT SUMERIA

Before the cities of Babylon and Ur rose from the plains, the Sumerians preserved traditions in which a sacred mountain stood at the center of the world. Some of the oldest texts in human history belong to this civilization, such as Enki and the World Order, [43] which points back to the Sumerian homeland as the "Great Mountain," the land of "heaven and earth." This immediately paints a vivid picture of their ancestral origins in the highlands.

Their worldview is further captured on the famous Adda Seal, an ancient cylinder seal dating to 2300 BC [44]. Here, Ea (the Sumerian water god Enki) is depicted ascending a mountain with four rivers flowing outward from his shoulders. Moreover, to the ancient Sumerians, the Tigris and Euphrates were not just ordinary rivers flowing down from the north, but the branches of a cosmic river whose source lay hidden high within the sacred mountain of the gods.

This connection to the northern highlands is cemented in one of the world's earliest epic texts, Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta (2100 BC). [45] The epic tells of the southern lowland kingdom of Uruk looking northward toward a distant, mountain kingdom known as Aratta. In the story, the king of Uruk demands that the highland king "bring down the mountain stones from their mountains" to build an abode and temple for the goddess Inanna (Ishtar). While most of the modern world assumes the Sumerians were the first to construct ziggurat temples in the plains, their own ancient text explicitly states that the mountain kingdom of Aratta knew how to build them first.

Historian Martiros Kavoukjian, in his landmark book Armenia, Subartu and Sumer, connected this legendary kingdom directly to Armenian archaeology. He wrote: "In view of all these material and tangible evidences supplied by Medzamor, testifying to its great and ancient past reaching the middle of the fourth millenium B.C., we are tempted to assume that it is not unlikely that this city might be the famous city of Aratta, the subject of the Sumerian epic tales." [46]

And where exactly is Metsamor? It lies in the heart of the Ararat Valley, sitting squarely in the shadow of Mount Aragats.

ANCIENT INDIA

Further east, look at the sacred literature of ancient India, which centers on the cosmic mountain known as Mount Meru. Across Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist traditions, Meru stands at the center of the world, serving as the cosmic axis connecting heaven and earth and the original source of the earth's great river systems. In the Vishnu Purana (Book II, Chapter 2), translated by Horace Hayman Wilson, the text states: [47]

"... in the centre of it is the golden mountain Meru, and the country extends nine thousand Yojanas in each direction from the four sides of the mountain...There are four mountains in this Varsha, formed as buttresses to Meru... that on the east is called Mandara; that on the south, Gandhamádana; that on the west, Vipula; and that on the north, Supárśwa"

The text goes on to describe that upon the elevated summit of Meru lies a "vast city", where a celestial river descends: "issuing from the foot of the peak... and, after encircling the city, divides into four mighty rivers, flowing in opposite directions toward the four quarters of the earth." [47]

We have some interesting similarities from the Vedic text:

1. Meru is one central mountain

2. Four mountains (or buttresses) are arranged around it, in the four directions.

3. A single river originating at the summit.

4. Four rivers then flow outward from the mountain towards the four directions.

The parallel to Genesis is impossible to miss. Genesis describes Eden as an elevated source where a single river flows out to water the garden, and from there divides into four headwaters running out to the corners of the known earth. And once again, this topography matches the physical topography of Mount Aragats: a singular mountain crowned by four distinct peaks standing at the four cardinal points, with four major rivers radiating outward across the mountain.

Across thousands of miles and separated by cultures, the ancient memory keeps circling back to the very same landscape.

ANCIENT CHINA

Finally, consider ancient China. Their foundational book of geography and myth, the Shanhaijing (The Classic of Mountains and Seas), describes Mount Kunlun as the original mountain of creation and the birthplace of mankind:

"It is portrayed as the birthplace of humankind. It was believed that although people of the world looked different, they were all from the same family that was born on Kunlun." [48]

Kunlun was also understood as the physical center of the world: "In Chinese cosmological thinking, the mythological Kunlun is the axis mundi, the cosmic pillar connecting heaven and earth, the center point around which all of creation is organized." [49]

The connection extends to its water system as well, as early Chinese tradition held that four rivers originated from its slopes: "In ancient China, there was a popular belief that four rivers rose from Mt. K'un Lun which was venerated among the people to be a mysterious mountain." [50] Associate Professor Gao Bo from the School of History at Renmin University of China explained the early "Four Rivers Diverging" [51] doctrine, which held that Kunlun was the highest point on earth and the source of all rivers. Classical commentaries also describe Kunlun as having four distinct sides, each facing one of the four cardinal directions of North, South, East, and West.

When you put these accounts side by side, the common details are clear. From Egypt's four pillars of Ermenen and Sumer's northern mountain garden, to Iran's High Hara, India's four rivers on Mount Meru, and China's four-sided Kunlun, the earliest civilizations preserved the memory of a high mountain where heaven met earth, crowned by four points, and feeding four rivers that ran out to the four corners of the world.

AXIS MUNDI: THE CENTER OF THE WORLD

A pattern emerges: nearly every major ancient civilization placed its cosmic mountain at the very center of the earth.

Ancient Greek geographers (Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Posidonius, Strabo) [52, 53] routinely viewed the high Armenian plateau as the center of the known world, anchoring the continental divides. Even today, Armenia is a geographic anomaly. Is it Europe, Asia, or the Middle East? It sits at the physical crossroads of all three. No other country on earth can say that.

Modern genetics is also revealing this crossroads. A landmark 2015 study led by Marc Haber showed that the Armenian genes have remained virtually unchanged since the end of the Bronze Age, around 1200 BC. They concluded that "Armenian ancestry may originate from an ancestral population that is best represented by Neolithic Europeans." [54] In a sense, their origin is themselves, which is what we would expect to find based on Genesis.

The map of the world according to Herodotus (Smith’s atlas, British Museum, London, 1874)

The map of the world according to Posidonius, 2nd c. BC (Drawn by Petrus Bertius., 1630)

SECTION 2.4

EDEN AND THE ARK

Let's consider it plainly, without the pretext of Aragats.

When we look at the grand narrative of Scripture, geography is never an accident. God does not simply use mountains as a beautiful backdrop; He weaves His redemption story into the very topography of the earth, and returns to the exact same place to complete the stories He begins.

Before we look at the mountain of Eden, let’s examine the other three most important mountains in the Bible: Mount Moriah, the Mount of Olives, and Mount Sinai. God uses a breathtaking pattern in each of one of them.

MOUNT MORIAH: THE MOUNTAIN OF SACRIFICE

Let's compare the stories of Issac (son of Issac) and Jesus (son of God). Both accounts center on a father who willingly offers his son as a sacrifice (Genesis 22:2; John 3:16). Both stories the son leaves his homeland (Genesis 12:1; John 16:28) and involve a donkey to carry them on their fateful journey (Genesis 22:3; Matthew 21:7). Both are the father's "one and only son" (Genesis 22:2; 1 John 4:9), both a descendant of Abraham (Genesis 21:12; Matthew 1:1), and both are born into the world through miraculous, divine intervention (Genesis 21:1-2; Luke 1:35).

As they approach the place of death, both sons carry the very wood for their sacrifice up the hill upon their shoulders (Genesis 22:6; John 19:17). In their agonizing moments, both sons question their father: Isaac asking where the lamb is (Genesis 22:7), and Jesus asking if the cup might pass from Him (Luke 22:42). Yet, both ultimately submit completely to the will of their father (Genesis 22:9; Luke 22:42). Both sons are laid upon and bound to the wood (Genesis 22:9; Matthew 27:35). In both accounts, God provides the sacrifice (Genesis 22:8; Romans 8:32). It is a lamb (Genesis 22:8; John 1:29), its head caught in a thicket of thorns (Genesis 22:13; Matthew 27:29). Blood is shed (Genesis 22:13; John 19:34), but in both stories, the sacrifice serves as a substitute: the ram taking the place of Isaac, and Christ taking the place of us all (Genesis 22:13; 1 Peter 3:18). And in both, there is a three-day timeline (Genesis 22:4; 1 Corinthians 15:4), both sons emerge alive. Isaac is figuratively received back from death, and Jesus literally resurrects from it (Hebrews 11:19; Matthew 28:6).

These parallels are so perfect they couldn't be made up. They point to the beauty of how God writes His story. But the most staggering detail is the physical location. The hill of sacrifice where all of this happened? Mount Moriah, the very same mountain ridge later known as Calvary (2 Chronicles 3:1; Luke 23:33). Where Abraham almost sacrificed his son is the exact spot where God the Father sacrificed His one and only Son.

THE MOUNT OF OLIVES: MOUNTAIN OF THE WEEPING KING

Let's look at the connections between King David and Jesus. Both are born in the small, unassuming town of Bethlehem (1 Samuel 16:4; Matthew 2:1). Both are described as shepherds (1 Samuel 16:11; John 10:11). Both are the anointed Kings of Israel (1 Samuel 16:13; John 12:13). Both conquered a giant (Goliath and death itself) (1 Samuel 17:50; 1 Corinthians 15:54-57) and both were after the heart and will of God (1 Samuel 13:14; John 6:38). David ruled from Jerusalem; Jesus' kingdom was established in Jerusalem. And in all these similarities, both kings are rejected by their own people (2 Samuel 15:13; John 1:11).

The parallels become even more profound in their darkest hours. Both kings are betrayed by a close, trusted friend and counselor (Ahithophel for David, and Judas Iscariot for Jesus), in whom they both share their bread with (Psalm 41:9; Luke 22:47). Both of these betrayers ultimately end their own lives by hanging themselves (2 Samuel 17:23; Matthew 27:5). On the very night of their betrayal, both kings leave the city of Jerusalem in sorrow (2 Samuel 15:16; John 14:31). As they depart, they retrace the exact same steps, where the Bible says they cross the Kidron Valley (2 Samuel 15:23; John 18:1). After crossing the valley, both kings ascend the exact same slope, the Mount of Olives (2 Samuel 15:30; Luke 22:39). As they climb, both kings are overwhelmed by the weight of their burden and weep (2 Samuel 15:30; Luke 22:44). Both kings pour out their hearts in prayer, submitting their lives and their kingdoms entirely to the will of God (2 Samuel 15:25-26; Luke 22:42).

Once again, this points to how beautiful God's story truly is. And the location where these two anointed kings faced their greatest hours of sorrow? The Mount of Olives. Where the earthly king of Israel wept as he lost his kingdom is the exact spot where the eternal King of Kings wept as He prepared to win it back. Of course it is!

MOUNT SINAI: THE MOUNTAIN OF ENCOUNTER

Let's look at the connections between Moses and Elijah, two figures who are said to represent the Old Testament: Moses the Law and Elijah the Prophets (Malachi 4:4-5). These two appeared with Jesus side by side during the transfiguration (Matthew 17:3). Both men are called by God to stand against tyrannical, hard-hearted rulers who have led people into idolatry: Moses against Pharaoh (Exodus 5:1) and Elijah against King Ahab (1 Kings 18:18). Both are used by God to bring miraculous judgments upon the land to prove the supremacy of the one true God (Exodus 7:17; 1 Kings 18:38). Both miraculously part a body of water to cross on dry ground (Exodus 14:21; 2 Kings 2:8), and both mysteriously depart this world with no grave (Deuteronomy 34:6; 2 Kings 2:11).

Both men endure a supernatural fast, surviving for exactly forty days and forty nights without food or water (Exodus 34:28; 1 Kings 19:8). Driven by this journey, both are called to the exact same geographical location: Mount Sinai, also known as Horeb, the mountain of God (Exodus 24:16; 1 Kings 19:8). Upon this peak, both men experience a terrifying, earth-shattering display of God's power involving wind, an earthquake, and fire (Exodus 19:18; 1 Kings 19:11-12). To survive the overwhelming presence of the Lord, both men are sheltered in the cave (Exodus 33:22, 1 Kings 19:9), which ancient tradition has long held to be the very same place. From this exact hollow in the mountain, both men have a conversation with the Lord, hearing His voice as He passes by (Exodus 34:5-6; 1 Kings 19:12-13).

Geography, particularly mountains, is integral to God's story and has meaning. When Elijah was at his absolute lowest, he was drawn all the way back to Mount Sinai. The exact mountain where God once descended in terrifying fire to establish the Law became the very spot where He returned in a gentle whisper to restore a broken prophet. Are we even surprised at this point?

Photos of Jerusalem from Winter 2026

Photos of the Mount of Olives, as seen from the Temple Mount.

Photos from out trip to the Sinai Peninsula in 2025.

THE MOUNTAIN OF BEGINNING: EDEN AND THE ARK

Can we apply this exact same pattern for the beginning of the Bible? Consider this:

God created a garden in Eden, a mountain from which four rivers flowed. As we have seen, the geography points to the Armenian Highlands as the most likely candidate, by far. Centuries later, after the Flood, God ordained the Ark to land on a mountain in the "mountains of Ararat," which also are in the Armenian Highlands. Both events occur in Armenia, and then we never hear from this region again for the remainder of the Bible.

One might suppose that one mountain was Eden, and another nearby peak was the Ark's landing place, and they just happened to be near each other, in the very same mountain range. But look closer at the Bible, as the exact same symmetry we just saw on Moriah, Olives, and Sinai is written all over Adam and Noah.

In both accounts, we see a world covered in water until dry land appears: a creation (Genesis 1:9) and a re-creation (Genesis 8:13). Both Adam and Noah serve as the starting points of the humanity (Genesis 3:20; Genesis 9:18-19), and are introduced as men of the soil (Genesis 2:15; Genesis 9:20) They both are given the exact same mandate: “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth” (Genesis 1:28; Genesis 9:1). Both men have the animals brought directly to them (Genesis 2:19; Genesis 6:20). Both experience a tragic fall linked to the fruit of a garden (Genesis 3:6-7, 21; Genesis 9:20-23) which both result in exposed nakedness, shame, and a covering provided for them. Both narratives center around three named sons (Cain, Abel, and Seth; Shem, Ham, and Japheth), and in both families, one son brings a devastating curse upon his lineage (Genesis 4:11; Genesis 9:25).

God is telling us a deliberate story here, and He is inviting us to connect the dots. Moses gave us a map of the rivers with just enough detail to trace Eden to the highlands of Armenia, and just enough detail to place the Ark’s landing there too. Just as Abraham and Jesus were bound to Moriah, just as David and Jesus wept on the Mount of Olives, and just as Moses and Elijah stood in that cave at Sinai, why would the amazing symmetry between Adam and Noah end with the people and not apply to the mountain itself? And this is just from reading the Bible.

When you bring together everything we uncovered in Part 1 and this study, is it any surprise that historically, geologically, and biblically, Mount Aragats fits both Eden and the Ark's landing better than anywhere else on earth? When you see the depth and beauty of God's Word, it shouldn't surprise us at all.

Where Noah stepped off the Ark is where Adam was formed from the dust. Where Noah built the first altar of the new world is the very ground where Adam and his sons brought the first sacrifices of the old. Eden and the Ark's resting place are the exact same location. God does not abandon the places where He moves; He returns to the mountain where human history began to give humanity a second chance. And I believe it's all found here on Aragats, down to the very footprint and red clay. We are getting ahead of ourselves, but before we unfold the amazing story of this all, we need to look at the archaeology here on Aragats.

A CONCLUSION TO PART 2

We have uncovered a lot here. We traced the biblical criteria for Eden and followed its topography straight to the headwaters of the four rivers. Between Scripture, history, geography, and ancient memory, a clear picture of Eden emerges: a sacred mountain standing at the center of the earth, four great rivers flowing out toward the four directions, and as memory shows, crowned by four summits. The Throne of God where Heaven reaches Earth.

Looked at objectively, Mount Aragats is the only peak anywhere near the Armenian highlands that fits this exact geography. Yet, if Aragats truly was the mountain of creation and the place of humanity's return after the Flood, shouldn't its slopes still hold physical proof of that beginning?

In Part 3, we will explore the mountain itself to examine the archaeological evidence, where the archaeology strongly suggests the cradle of civilization itself descended from these very slopes.

GO TO PART 3

IF STONES CAN TALK

A look into eight archaeological mysteries that point to Aragats being the cradle of civilization

REFERENCES

[1] Augustine of Hippo. City of God, Book VIII.

[2] Calvin, J. (2010). Commentaries on the First Book of Moses Called Genesis (J. King, Trans.). Logos Bible Software (pp. 119–120).

[3] The Book of Enoch. https://ia800903.us.archive.org/25/items/TheCompleteBookOfEnochStandardEnglishVersionJayWinter/The%20Complete%20Book%20of%20Enoch%2C%20Standard%20English%20Version%20-%20Jay%20Winter.pdf

[4] VanderKam, J. C. (Trans.). (1989). The Book of Jubilees.

[5] Simonetti, M. (1994). Biblical Interpretation in the Early Church: An Historical Introduction to Patristic Exegesis. T&T Clark.

[6] Beale, G. K. (2011). A New Testament Biblical Theology: The Unfolding of the Old Testament in the New. Baker Academic.

[7] Overland Armenia. (n.d.). Mount Aragats.

https://overlandarmenia.com/en/mount-aragats

[8] Kavoukjian, M. (1987). Armenia, Subartu, and Sumer: The Indo-European Homeland and Ancient Mesopotamia. Montreal (p. 69).

[9] (Reference number left blank in original draft)

[10] Posner, Z. (n.d.). Where Are the Four Rivers that Come from Eden? Chabad.org. Retrieved from: https://www.chabad.org/parshah/article_cdo/aid/3082157/jewish/Where-Are-the-Four-Rivers-that-Come-from-Eden.htm

[11] Abarim Publications. (n.d.). Pishon meaning. Retrieved from: https://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Pishon.html

[12] McClintock, J., & Strong, J. (1894). Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature.

[13] Hauptmann, A., et al. (2021). Sakdrisi, the oldest Gold Mine in the world. Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/65493282/Sakdrisi_the_oldest_Gold_Mine_in_the_world

[14] Mindat.org. (n.d.). Sotk Gold Mine, Gegharkunik Province, Armenia.

https://www.mindat.org/loc-10205.html

[15] Kunz, M., et al. (2021). Ushkiani Project: Preliminary archaeological investigations in the Lake Sevan Region, Armenia. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351498359_Ushkiani-Project_Preliminary_archaeological_investigations_in_the_Lake_Sevan_RegionArmenia

[16] Apollonius of Rhodes. Argonautica (The story of Jason and the Argonauts).

[17] Strabo. (1918). The Geography of Strabo (H. L. Jones, Trans.). London: William Heinemann.

[18] Argonauts Book. (n.d.). The Golden Fleece as Gold Mining. Retrieved from: https://www.argonauts-book.com/fleece-as-gold-mining.html

[19] Reland, A. (1706). De Situ Paradisi Terrestris (Early scholarly connection of the Pishon with the Phasis/Rioni River).

[20] McClintock, J., & Strong, J. (1894). Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature (Entry for Pishon).

[21] National Geographic. (2015, April 13). Paleolithic obsidian weapons, Arteni, Armenia archaeology. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/150413-Paleolithic-obsidian-weapons-arteni-armenia-archaeology

[22] Investor.ge. (2024, July 29). Gems of Georgia: Unearthing the country's untouched treasures. https://www.investor.ge/2024/07/29/gems-of-georgia-unearthing-the-countrys-untouched-treasures/

[23] Jewish Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Bdellium.

https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2683-bdellium

[24] Williams, I. (1861). The Beginning of the Book of Genesis, with Notes and Reflections.

[25] Lordkipanidze, O. (2019). Phasis: the problem of location. Academia.edu.

https://www.academia.edu/41955890/Phasis_the_problem_of_location

[26] Abarim Publications. (n.d.). Gihon meaning.

https://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Gihon.html

[27] Herzfeld, E. (1968). The Persian Empire. Wiesbaden (pp. 195–199).

[28] Delitzsch, F. (1881). Wo lag das Paradies? Eine biblisch-assyriologische Studie. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs (pp. 53–55).

[29] Encyclopaedia Iranica. (n.d.). Cossaeans (Kassites).

https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cossaeans/

[30] Livius.org. (n.d.). Araxes. Retrieved from: https://www.livius.org/articles/place/araxes/

[31] Virgil. Aeneid, Book VIII.

[32] Chamich, M. (1827). The History of Armenia (J. Avdall, Trans.). Volume I, Reign of Aramais (p. 13).

[33] Braund, D. (1994). Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562. (For the Araxes as the frontier of the Roman/ancient world).

[34] Ark Encounter. (n.d.). How Big is Noah’s Ark? Answers in Genesis. Retrieved from: https://arkencounter.com/noahs-ark/size/

[35] Gilibert, A. (2023). A Prehistoric Aggregated Cell Structure at 2850 m a.s.l. on Mount Aragats, Armenia. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368949375_A_Prehistoric_Aggregated_Cell_Structure_at_2850_m_asl_on_Mount_Aragats_Armenia

[36] Association Internationale des Études Arméniennes. Eden and Armenia.

[37] UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (2024). The Vishaps and the Cultural Landscape of Tirinkatar. Tentative Lists, Reference 6702. Retrieved from: https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6702/

[38] Egyptian Occult History. (2017, December). The Primordial Hill Known as Ben-Ben. https://egyptianocculthistory.blogspot.com/2017/12/the-primordial-hill-known-as-ben-ben.html

[39] Wikipedia. (n.d.). Benben. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benben

[40] Holy Call. (n.d.). Bible Maps: Minni. Archived at: https://web.archive.org/web/20120221232731/http://holycall.com/biblemaps/minni.htm

[41] Cline, E. H., & O'Connor, D. (Eds.). (2006). Thutmose III: A New Biography. University of Michigan Press.

[42] Academia.edu. (n.d.). Gates and Pillars of Heaven: The Architectural Structure of Cosmos in Greek, Egyptian and Near Eastern Tradition and Art. https://www.academia.edu/30503544/Gates_and_Pillars_of_Heaven_The_Architectural_Structure_of_Cosmos_in_Greek_Egyptian_and_Near_Eastern_Tradition_and_Art

[43] Enki and the World Order. Oxford Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature.

[44] The British Museum. (n.d.). Cylinder seal (Adda Seal). Museum number 1891,0509.2553. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1891-0509-2553?selectedImageId=323248001

[45] Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta. Oxford Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature.

[46] Kavoukjian, M. (1987). Armenia, Subartu, and Sumer: The Indo-European Homeland and Ancient Mesopotamia. https://archive.org/details/Kavoukjian1987ArmeniaSubartuSumer0105/page/n73/mode/2up

[47] Wilson, H. H. (Trans.). (1840). Vishnu Purana, Book II, Chapter 2.

[48] Snow Pavilion. (n.d.). The Mythos of Kunlun. Retrieved from: https://snowpavilion.co.uk/the-mythos-of-kunlun/

[49] Immortal Cultivation Hub. (n.d.). Kunlun Mountains in Chinese Mythology. Retrieved from: https://immortalcultivationhub.com/kunlun-mountains-in-chinese-mythology/

[50] National Taiwan University Library. Search Detail for Kunlun Mythology Research. https://dlbs.liberal.ntu.edu.tw/en/search/search_detail.jsp?seq=603586&comefrom=authorinfo

[51] Peking University. (n.d.). Institute of Area Studies News. https://ias.pku.edu.cn/en/News/News/447e8ec5951b40a4bbfecf8407422a46.htm

[52] World History Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Eratosthenes' Map of the World. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/6154/eratosthenes-map-of-the-world/

[53] All In Net. (n.d.). Armenia as the Center of the World in Ancient Greek Geography. https://allinnet.info/antiquities/armenia-as-the-center-of-the-world-in-ancient-greek-geography/

[54] Haber, M., et al. (2015). Genetic evidence for an origin of the Armenians from Bronze Age mixing of multiple populations. European Journal of Human Genetics. https://www.nature.com/articles/ejhg2015206

[55] Crouse, Bill. "Five Reasons Noah's Ark Did Not Land on Mt. Ararat; Five Reasons Why It Did Land on Cudi Dagh." https://www.bibelabenteurer.de/docs/five_reasons_bill_crouse.pdf.

[56] Smith, Alexia, Tamara Bagoyan, Ivan Gabrielyan, Ron Pinhasi, and Keith Wilkinson. "Late Chalcolithic and Medieval Archaeobotanical Remains from Areni-1 (Birds' Cave), Armenia." https://www.academia.edu/10034982/Late_Chalcolithic_and_Medieval_Archaeobotanical_Remains_from_Areni_1_Birds_Cave_Armenia.